This essay explores the theme and style of ‘Nausicaa’, the thirteenth episode of James Joyce’s Modernist work Ulysses. The chapter is set at 8pm on Sandymount Strand in Dublin, on June 16th 1904. A group of young girls are at the beach with one of the girl’s four-year-old twin brothers, and another’s baby brother. Among the group is Gerty MacDowell, an innocent teenager who daydreams about her life and having a husband. Sat nearby is Leopold Bloom, and both characters become “locked in an unspoken dialogue”[1]. Meanwhile, a temperance retreat in a nearby church and a firework display occur, and these synchronous events add an implied meaning to what happens between the characters.
Joyce uses two distinct narrative voices, the first of which is a third-person free indirect discourse style, which explores Gerty’s thoughts and feelings (this appears first). As stated by critic Harry Blamires, this part uses “mellifluous prose”[2], and the sentences tend to be long compared to the latter part of the text. For instance, the first paragraph of the chapter only features two sentences, despite being seven lines in length. The first line reads: “The summer evening begun to fold in its mysterious embrace”[3] (p.251, all subsequent page number references are for Ulysses, unless stated otherwise with a footnote). The second paragraph on page 251 describes the girls “enjoying the evening scene and the air was fresh but not too chilly” with the backdrop of “sparkling waves”. This style, from page 251 until “and then they parted” on page 265, ventriloquises from Joyce’s signature style and resembles that of a romantic novel or magazine, such as a ‘Mills and Boon’ publication. There are several reasons why Joyce does this. By using this style, it obfuscates the significance of what is happening, almost tricking the reader into thinking that this chapter is heading in a more innocent direction than it is. Joyce also does this to demonstrate his capabilities as a writer, showing that he can adopt different styles successfully. Furthermore, this style mimics the sort of books that Gerty is used to reading, for instance “the Princess novelette” (p.253). As author Heather Cook Callow points out, “Gerty uses the discourse in which she has been schooled to express herself”[4]. Joyce also described this style as “namby-pamby” (which has negative connotations), so perhaps he uses this it to “demonstrate the limitations placed on women in this society”[5] as critic Patrick Hastings suggests, as these are the sorts of texts available to them. Furthermore, he may use this style for parodic affect, as a type of “literary burlesque”.[6]
By contrast, Joyce reverts to an interior monologue style in the latter part of the chapter (from pages 267-276). This part unravels Bloom’s thoughts about Gerty, sexuality and his troubled relationship with his wife Molly. The sentences tend to be much shorter, and represent Bloom’s erratic thinking, such as “Howth. Bailey light. Two, four, six, eight, nine. See… Wreckers. Grace Darling” on page 271. Borrowing from Terence Killeen, there is a “contrast between the inflated, flowery, sentimental language of Gerty’s, and the flat, deflated language of Bloom’s” (p.150)[7]. Bloom’s interior monologue resembles a similar style to stream of consciousness narration, such as: “Mr Bloom inserted his nose”, soon followed by: “Hm. Into the. Hm. Opening of his waistcoat. Almonds or. Lemons it is. Ah no, that’s the soap” (p.271). However, the narration seems to be too punctuated and interrupted to be a ‘stream’ or a flow of thoughts. The two contrasting styles that Joyce presents grants readers an insight into the characters thoughts and feelings, and in doing so, allows us to have a closer connection and understanding with them. Generally, Bloom’s voice is portrayed as more realistic and sombre, whilst Gerty’s is the more innocent and naïve.
Soon after Joyce sets the scene, we are introduced to Gerty (who is aloof from her group), and later Bloom. The narration is interspersed with regular reminders of the temperance retreat in the backdrop, such as “It was the men’s temperance retreat… rosary, sermon and benediction of the Most Blessed Sacrament” (p.257). The characters lock eyes as Bloom becomes increasingly aroused: “Her woman instinct told her that she had raised a devil in him” (p.261). The fact that both stare at each other is significant – Joyce may be anticipating a feminist critique of the male gaze, creating both characters to look at each other, instead of only the man looking at the woman. As the romantic-novel style tension rises, we read that Gerty “revealed all her graceful beautifully shaped legs… The eyes that were fastened upon her set her pulses tingling. She looked at him a moment, meeting his glance, and a light broke in upon her” (p.264). We also read how she wants to be left alone through her free indirect discourse thought on page 264: “At last they were left alone without others to pry”.
This chapter presents a dual narration, where the events in the church and at the firework display help to tell the story of what happens between Bloom and Gerty. On page 252, we read: “she would have cried to him chokingly… to feel his lips laid on her white brow the cry of a young girl’s love”. This is followed soon after by: “And then a rocket sprang and bang shot blind and O! then the Roman candle burst and it was like a sigh of O! and everyone cried O! O!… it gushed out of it a stream of rain… O so lovely! O so soft, sweet, soft!”. This inferred meaning of what is happening soon becomes clear – the imagery of the fireworks represents Bloom’s orgasm, as he has been masturbating. The significance of the events in the church becomes clear in several ways. As Harry Blamires points out, a “double act of adoration” is occurring.[8] Bloom is watching Gerty’s body without being intimate with it, just as those at church watch the exposition of the Sacrament ‘Christ’s body’, without receiving communion (Mass). We also read how she “slipped her hand into her kerchief pocket and took out the wadding and waved in reply” (p.265), and Bloom picks up her smell: “Wait. Hm. Hm. Yes. That’s her perfume. Why she waved her hand?” (p.270). This imagery is also paralleled with incense in the church: “through the open window of the church the fragrant incense was wafted” (p.258). In addition, just as there are people with unfulfilled lives looking at the exposition of Christ, on the beach is a man unfulfilled with his life looking at the exposition of Gerty’s body for pleasure. Moreover, Bloom is described as “literally worshipping at her shrine” (p.272) as he watches her, engaging with the discourse of the religious service as he completes his act.
By using this narrative technique, Joyce is almost playing with the reader by challenging them to understand what happens through the symbolism. It soon becomes clear what he is alluding to, as we read that Bloom “recomposed his wet shirt” (p.267) and thinks: “the foreskin is not back. Better detach.” (p.270). On page 264, Gerty seems to notice that Bloom’s “hands and face were working”, however readers may not have realised what this meant. After reading the inferred meaning behind the fireworks and the religious ceremony, it is only then that readers might understand what was meant by “hands were working”. Here, Joyce exhibits his ability to narrate a story without explicitly stating what happens, instead pushing the reader to infer the meaning. The juxtaposition of what happens in the church and on the beach may be Joyce contrasting good with sin; the churchgoers are engaged in a virtue (temperance), whilst Bloom and Gerty are engaged in a sin (lust).
This chapter, among others, made Ulysses controversial. As a result, it was deemed obscene and faced a trial in 1921. Between that time and the current edition’s publication in 1922, Joyce revised the text to make it more explicit, and in doing so, made what was happening clearer. The chapter is unique from the perspective of gender and representation, because the discussion of the male body (Bloom’s genitalia) is uncommon in literature. Traditionally, it is the female body that might be represented in this way. This is one of the things that makes Modernism unique.
A prominent discourse in the text is Catholicism. Gerty is portrayed as obedient and a naïve follower of the religion. When fantasising about a boy for whom she had feelings, the narrative reads “There were Protestants in his family and Gerty knew Who came first, and after Him the blessed Virgin and Joseph” (p. 253). On page 264, she thinks: “there was absolution so long as you didn’t do the thing before you were married”. These could act as a critique of Catholicism, and draw on stereotypes of ‘Catholic guilt’ – she seems very scrupulous, and it appears as though her faith may stop her from having a man she desires. Gerty also thinks: “there ought to be woman priests” (p.264), which could be a critique of the male-only priesthood, an issue which remains unchanged over 100 years later. She fantasises about a romantic life with Bloom: “Even if he had been a sinner, a wicked man, she cared not. Even if he was a Protestant or Methodist she could convert him easily” (p.259). The fact that she would not care if Bloom was “a wicked man” but would have to convert him if he was not Catholic, may be Joyce drawing attention to the ludicrousness of the friction between different Christian denominations in contemporary Ireland.
As Gerty fantasises about love, her thoughts frequently turn back to religion. For example, she fantasises what life would be like if she was in a relationship with Bloom on page 259: “mayhap he would embrace her gently, like a real man, crushing her soft body to him, and love her, his ownest girl”. These romantic desires of a young girl suddenly transition to thoughts about the Virgin Mary and Catholicism in the next line: “Refuge of sinners. Comfortress of the afflicted… whosoever prays to her with faith and constancy can never be lost or cast away… Gerty could picture the whole scene in the church, Canon O’Hanlon at the altar, he looked almost like a saint”. The sudden shift from her romantic fantasies to deeply religious thoughts draws attention to her scrupulosity. On page 259, we also read that Gerty had previously spoken to the priest about being a nun: “if ever she became a Dominican nun in their white habit perhaps he might come to the convent for the novena of Saint Dominic”. Here, Gerty seems perhaps unsure if to choose a relationship or a life devoted to God. This confliction in her character is represented by the frequent changes in her thoughts – from romantic to religious. Gerty’s scrupulosity as a character is also portrayed when she seems to remember feeling guilty for menstruating: “He [Canon O’Hanlon] told her that time when she told him in confession… not to be troubled because that was only the voice of nature… that it was no sin because that came from the nature of woman instituted by God” (p.260). The fact that Gerty felt the need to go to confession about menstruating shows her to be very conscientious.
Bloom, on the other hand, does not share the same attitude to Catholicism. As a Jew, Bloom is a more outcast Dublin resident. On page 272, his interior monologue reads “Mass seems to be over. Could hear them all at it. Pray for us. And pray for us. And pray for us. Good idea the repetition. Same thing with ads. Buy from us. And. Buy from us.” This shows Bloom’s sceptical view of the church, as he parodies “pray” with “buy”. By thinking that it was ‘mass’ (rather than Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament), Bloom shows his unfamiliarity with the different church services. The repetition of “Pray for us” points out the repetitive and mundane nature of prayer, and Joyce may be doing this as a critique of the religion. Bloom’s apathetic view of Catholicism further shows on page 266, where he thinks about “Nuns with whitewashed faces… vindictive too for what they can’t get”. The use of words such as “whitewashed” and “vindictive” attributed to nuns shows him to be sceptical and disapproving of the religion.
The episode features a textual parallel between Gerty and the Virgin Mary. On page 253, Gerty is described as “queenly”, a word often associated with Mary, and her face is described as “almost spiritual” on page 252. Bloom’s gaze at her is described as him “worshipping at her shrine” (p.262), much like those nearby at the temperance retreat are worshipping at the ‘Mary, Star of the Sea’ church. Moreover, she wears “a neat blouse of electric blue” (page 254), which is “her own colour” (p.254). Traditionally, blue is associated with Mary, especially in paintings. The description of the church on page 259 reads that there are “blue banners of the blessed Virgin’s solidarity”. The parallels between Gerty and Mary may be used to show her sexual innocence as a character.
The previously discussed ‘romantic novel’ style features intricate descriptions of Gerty’s appearance. On page 252, we read that “The waxen pallor” of her face has “ivorylike purity”, and that “her rosebud mouth was a genuine Cupid’s bow… Greekly perfect”. These references to Greek mythology relate to the textual motif of love (as Cupid was the Greek god of erotic desire and attraction). On page 253, she is described to have “beautiful eyes, a charm few could resist”. Joyce also links her beauty to her Irish heritage: “Gerty’s eyes were the bluest of Irish blue… a fair specimen of winsome Irish girlhood as one could wish to see” (p.253). On page 252, we read that “She was pronounced beautiful by all who knew her”. These ‘corny’ descriptions resemble the romantic novel style.
These descriptions of Gerty may not be accurate, because the narration is free indirect discourse (as it is influenced by the character’s thoughts). Despite the descriptions of her flawless beauty, we later find out on page 266 that she is “lame”. The free indirect discourse makes her seem narcissistic at times as she thinks highly of herself: such as on page 253 where we read: “there was a languid queenly hauteur about Gerty”. “Hauteur” infers that she is arrogant and views herself highly. Her dislike for the children is also strongly conveyed, for instance describing the children as “the young heathen” (p. 258) or “little brats of twins” (p.259). When she wants to be alone with Bloom, we read that she “wished to goodness they would take their squalling baby out of that and not get on her nerves” (p.259). Her relationship with Edy, one of the other girls, also seems to be problematic. When Edy asks if she was “heartbroken about her best boy throwing her over” (p.262), we read that “Edy had her own way of saying things that she knew would wound like the confounded cat she was” (p.262). Gerty’s arrogance continues as she contemplates her life: “Everyone thought the world for her for her gentle ways. It was Gerty who turned off the gas at the main every night and it was Gerty who tacked up on the wall of that place” (p.257). She also seems dissatisfied with the class she was born in: “Had fate willed her to be born a gentlewoman of high degree… Gerty might have held her own beside any lady in the land” (p.253), a clear example of her fantasising a life far from her own.
The ‘romantic novel’ style shows the extent of Gerty’s fantasies about her life. She imagines what life would be like “gowned with jewels and suitors at her feet” on page 253. Soon after, she fantasises about a man “who would understand, take her in his sheltering arms, strain her to him in all strength of a deep passionate nature and comfort her with a long long kiss” (p.255). Thoughts such as these contrast to the solemn and more grounded thoughts of Bloom.
Gerty is also portrayed as naïve in the way she views Bloom. She is aware of Bloom’s “passionate gaze” (p.262), however does not seem to realise the extent of Bloom’s behaviour. On page 261, we read: “Gerty could see that he had enormous control over himself… selfcontrol expressed in every line of his distinguished looking figure”. The fact that Gerty fails to realise Bloom is pleasuring himself, instead thinking that he has “enormous control over himself” (p.261), shows Gerty’s naivety and innocence as a character, and also has comedic effect.
The sexual tension between the characters is portrayed in detail. We do not hear Bloom’s perspective whilst he is masturbating as his interior monologue does not begin until after, however Gerty’s free indirect discourse narration explores her perspective of what he is doing. Bloom catching her eye on her at page 264 “set her pulses tingling”. On the same page, she notices: “Whitehot passion was in [Bloom’s] face” and hears: “the panting of his heart, his breathing, because she knew about the passion of men”.
One of the unique things about the type of narration that Joyce uses in this chapter is privileging the reader with knowledge that characters do not have. For example, Gerty notices that Bloom is sad on page 259: “He was deep in mourning, she could see that, and the story of a haunting sorrow was written on his face”. Whilst she does not know what Bloom is sad about, we read that: “She would have given the world to know what it was”. As readers, we know that Bloom is having a day of crisis due to Molly’s infidelity with Blazes Boylan (as she is frustrated after over 10 years without sex), however Gerty does not have that privileged knowledge that readers do.
A noticeable difference between the styles is the fact that Bloom’s interior monologue features several italicised phrases in other languages, unlike Gerty’s (except from the occasional Latin from the church service in her free indirect discourse). Amongst Bloom’s flow of thoughts is “Faugh a ballagh”, which is Irish for “clear the way”. This is followed shortly after on the same page with “Buenas noches, señorita. El hombre ama la muchacha hermosa”, which means ‘good evening miss. The man loves the beautiful girl” in Spanish. Here, he seems to be talking about himself and what he has just done. Words with a French origin are also used, such as “Tableau” or “deshabillé” on page 266, as well as the regular Latin throughout the chapter, which acts as a constant reminder of what is happening in the background of Bloom and Gerty’s encounter. Bloom’s multi-lingual lexicon draws attention to his ‘outsider’ status in Ulysses, as he has European and Jewish ancestry. Even as soon as Gerty sees Bloom, she “could see at once by his dark eyes and pale intellectual face that he was a foreigner” (p.259).
Both narrative styles feature considerable textual detail on bodily processes. On page 252, we read about Tommy Boardman (one of the infants) being taken by Edy to urinate behind the pushchair, as she makes sure that “he didn’t wet his new tan shoes” (p.252). Moreover, it is revealed that Gerty is menstruating on page 262: “She knew by the feel of her scalp and that irritation against her stays that that thing must be coming on”. In his interior monologue, Bloom seems to be aware of her menstruation: “Near her monthlies, I expect.” (p.266). He continues to think about the subject, asking: “How many women have it in Dublin today?… why don’t all women menstruate at the same time with same moon?” (p.266). The bodily processes of Bloom’s lewd act are also alluded to, such as “Mr Bloom with careful hand recomposed his wet shirt” on page 267 and “the foreskin is not back. Better detach” on page 270. Including subjects like these in literature is one of the things that was unique about Joyce, who once described Ulysses as an “epic of the human body”.[9]
A notable part towards the end of Bloom’s interior monologue is when he inscribes in the sand on page 275: “Mr Bloom with his stick gently vexed the thick sand”. He writes “I AM A”, before deciding to stop writing: “No room. Let it go” (p.275). What he intended to write is one of several mysteries in Ulysses, as there are no other passages in the book that provide a clue. As a result, much has been speculated about what Bloom intended to say.[10] He may be thinking about love, a key motif throughout the episode (‘ama’ is Latin for ‘love’). At the end of page 275, ‘Cuckoo’ is repeated on three lines. This set of three appears again twice on the next page. The meaning behind this is also ambiguous, however could reflect the way that Joyce’s wife has been unfaithful – meaning that ‘I AM A’ may have been finished with ‘cuckhold’.
Overall, this episode of Ulysses features many unique aspects in terms of theme and style. The text creates an innovative style of psychological realism, which is one of the reasons why the book still attracts readers and critics alike, 100 years since publication.
Bibliography
Baldick, Chris, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, (New York, Oxford University Press, 2001)
Bălinişteanu, Cătălina, ‘Love and Sexuality: Leopold Bloom/ Molly Bloom versus sexual fantasies and temptations’ Review of Interdisciplinary Centre for Studies of Contemporary Discursive Forms, 2 (2008), pp. 109-117
Blamires, Harry, The New Bloomsday Book: A Guide Through Ulysses, (New York: Routledge, 2010)
Callow, Cook, H., ‘Joyce’s Female Voices in “Ulysses”’, The Journal of Narrative Technique, 22 (1992), 3 pp. 151–163
Joyce, James, Ulysses, ed. by S. Slote, M. A. Mamigonian and J. Turner (Croydon: Alma, 2017)
Killeen, Terence, Ulysses Unbound, (Dublin: Wordwell, 2014), p.150
Patrick Hastings, ‘Episode 13: Nausicaa’, Ulysses Guide, 2020 < https://www.ulyssesguide.com/13-nausicaa > [Accessed 14 May 2022]
Preston, Carrie, J., ‘Joyce’s Reading Bodies and the Kinesthetics of the Modernist Novel’, Twentieth Century Literature, 55 (2009), 2, pp. 232-254
[1] Harry Blamires, The New Bloomsday Book: A Guide Through Ulysses, (New York: Routledge, 2010), p.141.
[2] Blamires, The New Bloomsday Book, p.137
[3] James Joyce, Ulysses, ed. by S. Slote, M. A. Mamigonian and J. Turner (Croydon: Alma, 2017), p.251
[4] Heather Cook Callow, ‘Joyce’s Female Voices in “Ulysses”’, The Journal of Narrative Technique, 22 (1992), 3 (pp. 151–163)
[5] Patrick Hastings, ‘Episode 13: Nausicaa’, Ulysses Guide, 2020 < https://www.ulyssesguide.com/13-nausicaa > [Accessed 14 May 2022] (para. 2)
[6] Blamires, The New Bloomsday Book, p.132
[7] Terence Killeen, Ulysses Unbound, (Dublin: Wordwell, 2014), p.150
[8] Blamires, The New Bloomsday Book, p.139
[9] Carrie J. Preston, ‘Joyce’s Reading Bodies and the Kinesthetics of the Modernist Novel’, Twentieth Century Literature, 55 (2009), 2, pp. 232-254
[10] Cătălina Bălinişteanu, ‘Love and Sexuality: Leopold Bloom/ Molly Bloom versus sexual fantasies and temptations’ Review of Interdisciplinary Centre for Studies of Contemporary Discursive Forms, 2 (2008), pp. 109-117
The Ventriloquist 
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